Many of the presumptions about science in the middle ages come from observations that are focused on Western Europe. However, from 762 the Islamic Empire expanded and prospered across North Africa and parts of Southern Europe and Asia. Apart from their abilities as fighting men, a rich tradition of advancement in science and mathematics grew from these areas. Through limited nonviolent contact during the Crusades and later through the conquest of parts of Spain, much of this learning was transmitted to Western Europe. Islamic scholars were particularly skilled in areas such as medicine, navigation and metallurgy.
If there truly was a period that can be called the Dark Ages, it was in this early part of the Middle Ages, approximately from A.D. 500 to 800. However, while there was much violence and disruption, even here there can be seen evidence of scientific awareness. For example, although the Vikings and others from Northern Europe have reputations as fierce and destructive warriors and invaders, their boats, swords and jewelry not only were of a high standard and in many respects ahead of the times, and the craft and design of them evolved and improved during this period. Monks continued to play an important role in writing in this era and one example of recorded scientific advancement is a book from England that used astronomy to show how Easter should be calculated.
During the 9th century, more attention was turned towards learning and one person who perhaps epitomized some of the aspirations of that time was Charles the Great. As well as being a strong and warlike leader, he was also committed to the strength and power that could come from learning. In England and other areas of Western Europe, small centers of education started to appear, often springing from monasteries and led by monks.
As Christianity emerged as a limited unifying force, the period from about A.D. 1000 saw a shift from continuous fighting and the beginnings of the establishment of order and control by monarchs. Furthermore, as noted above, the influences of Arabic learning, particularly in mathematics and science, began to infiltrate Western Europe, facilitated by increased trade with North Africa and the Middle East. Thomas Aquinas is one example of the advances made at the time. Among other contributions, he proposed that reasoning based in evidence should be the main building block for advance.