Critics of intelligence testing argue that intelligence tests fail to address a full spectrum of what constitutes modern intelligence because they are not based on plausible ideas of how the brain actually works. They suggest that simply measuring cognitive functioning categories such as comprehension, judgment and reasoning oversimplifies the complexity of everyday life and activities and fails to account for intellectual abilities outside the realm of academics such as creativity, social intelligence, mechanical intelligence and day-to-day functioning. Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences, established in 1983, puts forth nine possible areas within which a student may demonstrate giftedness: linguistic, mathematical, spatial, musical, kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, existential and naturalist (concerning distinctions within nature and among organisms). Critics believe that an intelligence test based on a model such as this would allow for greater variations of intelligence and giftedness to shine through and gain acknowledgment.
Because intelligence tests do not actually measure innate intelligence with any biological basis and may yield varying scores from one test to the next or from one age to the next, young students who are on the borderline between average and above-average scores --- or who demonstrate strength in one area of cognitive performance but weakness in another --- may unnecessarily miss out on access to gifted programs that will enable them to position themselves as competitive at higher grade levels or in their specific areas of talent. For instance, a capable seventh or eighth grader whose intelligence test results are on the borderline between average and above average may be denied placement into a pre-algebra class through his school's honors program. In the years that follow, that placement could cause him to miss out on the opportunity to take calculus before graduating high school, thus rendering him less competitive when it's time to apply for college.
Typically, minorities and students with economic disadvantages receive lower intelligence testing scores than students from other backgrounds, which critics believe is an indication of bias that exists within conventional test constructions. Since schools often use intelligence tests to determine school admission or placement in programs for gifted students, such tests seem perpetuate the lack of representation of minorities and economically disadvantaged students in such programs and the lack of educational opportunities that could potentially allow them to thrive and advance academically.
For individuals deemed gifted or above average based on intelligence testing, their confidence and motivation receive a positive impact. However, for students considered average or below average on the basis of intelligence tests, their sense of self-worth and their motivation suffers. While each child's mental development occurs at its own pace, a young student informed early on that he is not intelligent enough to be placed with gifted students in fast-tracked classes begins then internalizing a negative sense of his own capabilities.