The term teacher-directed instruction became popular in the 1980s as educators attempted to find research-based models for effective instruction. One of the best known researchers in this area was Madeline Hunter, who developed a model lesson plan based on putting instructional theory into classroom practice. Hunter’s lesson plan focused on the role of the teacher in presenting information and directing students in activities to practice newly acquired skills. These direct-instruction methods can work effectively in any content area, notes Barak Rosenshine, the researcher credited with coining the term "direct instruction" in a 1986 essay.
In “Five Meanings of Direct Instruction,” Rosenshine makes clear that direct instruction does not mean teachers lecturing to students who passively receive information. Students need active engagement in the lesson. San Diego State University education professors Douglas Fisher and Nancy Frey outline steps in direct instruction that produce what they call a gradual release of responsibility for learning from the teacher to the students. Their direct-instruction model begins with the teacher explaining new information or modeling a new skill. From there, the teacher provides an opportunity for guided practice, during which students work with the new knowledge or practice the new skill with teacher assistance. Finally, students work independently to demonstrate knowledge or new abilities.
Reciprocal teaching is a small-group learning strategy that places the responsibilities for teaching and learning content on the students. Although it is commonly used for teaching reading comprehension strategies, the technique can be applied in other subject areas. In the four-person groups, students adopt roles that focus on specific thinking strategies: predicting, questioning, clarifying and summarizing. Students follow a set protocol for applying the strategy to learn content from a textbook or other resource, rather than directly from the teacher. The teacher models the thinking routines for students through numerous lessons, and joins groups to help facilitate conversations and monitor progress.
According to Fisher, teachers often have a difficult time incorporating reciprocal teaching into their classes because it diverges greatly from commonly practiced direct-instruction methods. Reciprocal-teaching groups are usually driven by student interest and inquiry into a topic, rather than a set teacher-made objective, which is a center piece of direct instruction. However, students report learning more from working in reciprocal teaching than they do reading and working independently. The Institute for Education Sciences analyzed six studies on the effects of reciprocal teaching on adolescent learners and found positive results in three studies, undetermined results in two and negative effects in one.