Observing a culture or group in its natural setting is a longtime favored method of social research. Often associated with anthropology and sociology, researchers have used observation in a variety of settings, from foreign cultures to school classrooms. By interacting with members of a group or society and participating in its activities and rituals, researchers can study social phenomena from the perspective of an outsider and insider. Because of the nature of social science research, observations occur as a part of field research, rather than in a laboratory setting. Observation yields rich descriptive data, but must be conducted carefully. A major concern with observation is whether the subjects, knowing they are being observed, alter their behavior or activities.
Written questionnaires, administered to a sample of subjects, and interviews, conducted in person or by phone, are favorite research methods across all branches of social science. Researchers code survey data for analysis with a variety of statistical techniques, while interviews with open-ended questions generate detailed data for qualitative analysis. Researchers must be cautious of bias – their own, as well as that of their subjects – when constructing surveys and conducting interviews. The construction of questions may reveal a researcher’s bias. Subjects, meanwhile, may answer questions in such a way as to give the most favorable impression of themselves.
Documents, such as letters, journals, government records and other written materials, provide another method of social research. Social scientists use document analysis when the phenomena they want to observe cannot be fully measured by interviews or observations. Often, social scientists use document analysis in conjunction with other research methods, such as interviews and observations. Like observations and interviews, documents can produce detailed qualitative data. However, data from documents also can be quantitatively coded using content analysis techniques.
To add scientific rigor to social research, sociologists, political scientists and others have conducted complex statistical analyses in their research, either collecting their own data or using data sets from government agencies or other organizations. Popular data sets in social research include the American National Elections Studies, the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, and the various types of economic data collected by the U.S. Department of Commerce and the Bureau of Labor Statistics. These and other data sets allow social researchers to use empirical data to test hypotheses and draw conclusions based on hard quantitative data. Researchers who use data collected by government agencies and others, however, must exercise caution, as these data were likely collected for purposes that differ from those for which the researcher is using the data.