From a child's birth to the age of one, Erikson posited that children learn in direct proportion to their trust in their primary caregiver, usually a parent or guardian. The greater the trust a child has in his parent, the greater his confidence and security. Children who are nurtured and loved develop a hope and optimism in the world. However, children who are not raised in a loving environment develop a mistrust and fear of the world, which can cause insecurity, doubt, and negatively impact their cognitive development.
From the age of one to the age of three, Erikson theorized that parents who encourage a child to do things on her own and praise her efforts, create the environment necessary to achieve independence. Self-esteem begins during this stage, helped by parents who set limits on behavior but allow a child the room to explore her surroundings and make mistakes. However, overly authoritarian parents who are too demanding may cause a child to experience shame and doubt about her ability to make decisions for herself, which contributes to low-esteem later in life.
From the age of three to the age of six, Erikson theorized that parents who allow their children to plan events such as parties or playdates, help them develop initiative. At this stage, children are learning how to develop a sense of purpose and beginning to understand how to achieve simple goals through systematic activities. Parents who are critical of a child's choices, may cause him to feel guilty about taking initiative, which may result in self-inhibition that leads into adulthood.
From age six to age 12 or 13, a child expands his horizons -- especially in school -- and exhibits the desire to do well in planned activities, such as school assignments. At this stage, Erikson believes that parents who recognize their child's achievements in school work through praise or rewards, create a sense of pride in the child's industriousness. However, parents whose expectations are too high and parents who withhold encouragement and praise for a child's work may cause a child to feel inferior, harming their ability to do well.
From age 13 to age 19, a child transitions into young adulthood and attempts to discover an identity that defines her. She may go through several phases in her quest to find a comfortable persona. Parents are less influential than peers in this stage, but can still provide guidance by allowing their child to explore different possibilities, and remain patient with the inevitable frustrations and failures associated with finding oneself. Role confusion is manifested when parents deny a child the chance to explore various identities, which results in a child's confusion about how she fits into society.