* The Congress of Vienna, which redrew the map of Europe after the Napoleonic Wars
* The Industrial Revolution, which brought about major changes in the way goods were produced
* The rise of nationalism in Europe, which led to a number of revolutions and wars
* The development of the steamboat and the railroad, which revolutionized transportation
* The invention of the telegraph, which made long-distance communication possible
* The discovery of gold in California, which triggered the Gold Rush of 1849