* Defining "Novel" is Hard: The modern concept of a novel didn't exist in ancient times. Early works that might be considered novels were often called "romances," "epics," or "tales." There wasn't a clear distinction between genres.
* Lost and Forgotten Texts: Many ancient works have been lost to time. There could have been novels written that we'll never know about.
* Cultural Differences: What was considered a novel in one culture might not have been in another. Different cultures had different storytelling traditions.
Some Early Candidates:
* The Tale of Genji (11th century Japan): Often considered the world's first novel, it's a complex story of court life, love, and social commentary.
* The Golden Ass by Apuleius (2nd century CE): A Roman novel with elements of satire, fantasy, and eroticism.
* The Satyricon by Petronius (1st century CE): Another Roman novel, this one is a satirical work set during the reign of Nero.
* The Tale of the Two Lovers by Ibn Hazm (11th century Spain): An Islamic romance novel that explores themes of love, marriage, and social constraints.
While there are strong contenders for the title of "first novel," ultimately, it's a question that may never have a definitive answer.